Dodatek 3. Czasowniki nieregularne: samogłoski tylne i przednie

Strona w budowie

Możemy przedstawić czasowniki nieregularne pod względem przednich i tylnych jakości samogłosek.

Mouth__Schematic presentation

Vowel chart__Front and back vowel qualities

As all live languages, American English is not a monolith. It has regional varieties. The appendix includes regional variety. We mark regional forms as ^R, “regional”.

Regional varieties have second and third forms the same more often — we can choose and give them stars on our own. We may compare regional American forms for “chide” or “hide”.

chide	chid	chid
hide	hid	hid

Regional variants also resolve into a mid-to-back pattern more often. We may mark this with a tilde, that is, a flourish.

spin

span^R

spun

Regular forms may prevail in standard American. They are not a novelty, however. The King James’ Bible has a form as “builded”, for example.

Archaic or obsolete forms are those out of regular use. We do not predict here which forms might be in live use, therefore we mark forms that occur rarely as ^A, “aged”.

We will find our aged forms especially in poetry. Authors ― also American ― have used the forms for adjectives. We may follow in our wrought writings; we yet always have choice as learned people.

The prejudice about the language standard is that it excludes regional variety or prescribes which verb forms might ever be in use. Neither is true. It is prescriptive attitude to language, and not language itself, to try to make rulings.

With regard to language standard, we recognize socially cumbersome forms we mark as [TABOO]. Regional variety does not belong with these. We have regional and dialectal uses in literature, as in Mark Twain’s Huckleberry Finn. Let us mind, as learners, it takes a talent as Mark Twain’s, to use regional or dialectal forms for our written, literary works.

Irregular verb forms with regard to back and front vowel qualities, back to front.

1. Second and third forms [o] – [o]
[o] – [o] – [o]

saw

sawed

sawed/sawn

[u:] – [o] – [o]

lose	lost	lost
shoe	shod/shoed	shod/shoed/shodden^R
shoot	shot	shot/shotten^R

[ɅI ] — [o] — [o]

buy	bought	bought
fight	fought/fout^R/fit^R	fought/foughten^R/fout^R/ fit^R

[з] — [o] — [o]

work

worked/wrought^A (transitive sense)

worked REG / wrought^A (transitive sense)

[æ] — [o] — [o]

catch

caught/catched^R

[e:] — [o] — [o]

bear	bore	borne/born/bore^R
sell	sold	sold
tell	told	told
swear	swore/sware^A	sworn/swore^R
tear	tore/tare^A	torn/tare^A/tore^R
tread	trod/treaded	trodden/trod^R/tread^R
wear	wore	worn/wore^R

Please compare to bear, to lower the prices; beared [e], beared [e].
Please compare to tear [tI:r], to fill with tears, shed tears; teared [I:], teared [I:]

[I] — [o] — [o]

think	thought/thunk^R (transitive sense)	thought/ thunk^R (transitive sense)
bring	brought/ brang^R / brung^R/ broughten^R	brought/ brang^R / brung^R/ broughten^R
seek	sought	sought
shear	sheared/shore^R	sheared/shorn
teach	taught	taught

[oI] — [oI] — [oI]

spoil

spoiled /spoilt

spoiled/spoilt

[ou] — [ou] — [ou]

mow: to cut, crop	mowed	mowed/mown
mow: to pile as in a haymow	mowed	mowed
mow: to make faces	mowed	mowed
sew: to stitch	sewed	sewed/sewn
show	showed	showed/shown
sow	sowed	sowed/sown

Please compare to sew, to drain of water; sewed, sewed.

[u] — [ou] — [ou]

choose

chose

chosen/chose^R

[ɅI] — [ou] — [ou]

shine

shone/shined

[eI] — [ou] — [ou]

break	broke/brake^R	broken/broke^R
stave	stove/staved	stove/staved
wake	woke/waked	woken/waked/woke^R

[ I:] — [ou] — [ou]

cleave: to separate, to split	clove/cleaved/cleft/clave^A	cloven/cleaved/cleft/
cleave to: to adhere	clove/cleaved/clave^A	clove/cleaved
freeze	froze/friz^R	frozen/froze^R/friz^R
heave	hove/heaved/hoved^R	hove/heaved/hoven^A&R
speak	spoke/spake^A	spoken/spoke^A
steal	stole	stolen/stole^R
weave: to interlace	wove/weaved	woven/weaved

Please compare to weave: to waver; weaved [I:], weaved [I:].

2. Second and third forms [u:] — [u:]
[æ] — [u:] — [u:]

stand

stood

3. Second and third forms [Ʌ] — [Ʌ]
[ɅI] — [Ʌu] — [Ʌu]

bind	bound	bound/bounded^A
find	found	found
grind	ground/grinded^R/grounden^A	ground/grinded^R/ grounden^A
wind: to warp	winded [ɅI] / /wound	winded [ɅI] / /wound
wind: to blow a horn	winded [ɅI] / /wound	winded [ɅI] / /wound

Please compare to wind, to limit the breath, to expose to wind, dry; winded [ɅI], winded [ɅI].

Please compare to wind, to smell a scent; winded [ɅI], winded [ɅI].

[ Ʌ] — [ Ʌ] — [ Ʌ]

thrust

[e] — [ Ʌ] — [ Ʌ]

get

got/gat^A

got/gotten

[I] — [Ʌ ] — [Ʌ ]

cling	clung/clang^R	clung
dig	dug	dug
fling	flung/flang^R	flung
sling: to throw	slung/slang^R	slung
sling: to put in a sling	slung/slinged	slung/slinged
slink	slunk/slinked^R/slank^R	slunk
spin	spun/span^R	spun
stick	stuck	stuck
sting	stung/stang^R	stung
stink (TABOO)	stunk/stank^R	stunk
string	stringed/strung/strang^R	stringed/strung
swing	swung/swang^R	swung
win	won	won
wring	wrung	wrung

Please compare to cling: to make a metallic sound; clinged, clinged.

Please compare to sling: to drink alcohol (TABOO); slung/slinged, slung/slinged.

Please compare to stick: to arrange, to support with a stick; sticked, sticked.

Please compare to win: to reside BRE;^R (intransitive) winned BRE,^R winned BRE.^R

Please compare to win: to dry BRE;^R won BRE,^R won BRE.^R

[ ɅI] — [Ʌ] — [Ʌ]

strike

struck

struck/stricken

[æ] — [Ʌ] — [Ʌ]

hang

hung/hanged

4. Second and third forms [ з ] — [ з ]
[з] — [ з ] — [ з ]

burn	burned/burnt/brent^A/brunt BRE^R	burned/burnt/brent^A/brunt BRE^R
learn	learned/learnt BRE	learned/learnt BRE

[ I] — [з] — [ з]

hear

heard/heared^R / hearn^A

5. Second and third form [ e] — [e]
[o] [ e] — [e]

hold

held/hilt^R

held/holden^A

[e] [ e] — [e]

bend	bent/bended^R	bent/bended^R
blend: to blind, to deceive^A (transitive only)	blend/blent^A	blent/blended^A
blend: to mix	blended REG / blent	blended REG / blent
bless	blessed REG / blest	blessed REG / blest
lend	lent	lent
rend	rended/rent	rended/rent
smell	smelled REG / smelt BRE	smelled/smelt BRE
send	sent	sent
spell	spelled/spelt BRE	spelled/spelt BRE
spend	spent	spent

Please compare to bless: to shake, brandish (weapon);^A blessed^A, blessed.^A

Please compare to spell: to take turns, to allow to rest; spelled, spelled.

Please compare to spell: to becharm; spelled, spelled.

[eI] — [e] — [e]

gainsay	gainsaid	gainsaid
say	said/saidest^A/saidst^A	said

Please compare to say: to assay, to try, to test; (as)sayed [eI], (as)sayed [eI].

[I] — [e] — [e]

bereave	bereaved/bereft	bereaved/bereft/bereaven^A
bleed	bled/bleeded^R	bled/bleeded^R
breed	bred	bred
deal	dealt	dealt
dream	dreamed/dreamt	dreamed/dreamt
feed	fed	fed
feel	felt	felt
flee	fled	fled
keep	kept	kept
kneel	kneeled/knelt	kneeled/knelt
lead	led	led
lean	leaned/ leant BRE	leaned/leant BRE
leave	left	left
leap	leaped REG / leapt	leaped REG / leapt
mean	meant/meaned^A	meant/meaned^A
meet	met	met
read	read	read
sleep	slept	slept
speed	speeded/sped	speeded/sped
sweep	swept	swept
weep	wept	wept

Please compare to bleed: to provide, to be drained for, e.g. money (in the passive) TABOO; bleeded^R [I:] TABOO, bleeded^R [I:] TABOO.

Please compare to bleed: to produce or to make pass (baseball slang) TABOO; bleeded^R [I:] TABOO, bleeded^R [I:] TABOO.

Please compare to lead [led], to cover in lead; leaded [e], leaded [e].

Please compare to lean, to make inclined; leaned [I:], leaned [I:].

Please compare to leave,: to produce leaves; leaved [I:], leaved [I:].

Please compare to mean: to mediate;^A meaned^A [I:], meaned^A [I:].

[eI] — [eI] — [eI]

inlay	inlaid	inlaid
lade	laded	laded/laden
lay	laid	laid
make	made	made
pay	paid	paid
shave	shaved	shaved REG/shaven

Please compare to pay: to slacken (a rope, for example); paid/payed, paid/payed.

Please compare to shave: to reduce in amount; shaved, shaved.

[ɅI] — [eI] — [eI]

lie: remain in a horizontal position

lay

lain/lien^A [Iə]

Please compare to lie [ɅI], to make a false statement; lied [ɅI], lied [ɅI].

6. Second and third forms [ I] — [ I]
[ɅI] — [ I] — [ I]

bite	bit	bitten/bit^R
chide	chided /chid/chode^A	chided /chid/chidden
hide	hid	hidden/hid
light: to brighten	lighted/lit	lighted/lit
light: to dismount	lighted REG / lit	lighted REG / lit
slide	slid/slided^R/slod^R	slid/slided^R/slidden^A

Please compare to hide: to punish by beating TABOO; hided [ɅI] TABOO, hided [ɅI] TABOO.

Please compare to be/feel slided: to be/feel cheated or wasted (in the passive) TABOO; slided [ɅI] TABOO, slided [ɅI] TABOO.

Please compare to slip-slide: to become lower in grade; slip-slided [ɅI], slip-slided [ɅI].

[I] — [I] — [I]

build	built/builded^A	built/builded^A
gild	gilded/gilt	gilded/gilt
gird	girded/girt	girded/girt
hit	hit	hit
knit	knitted/knit/knet^R	knitted/knit/knet^R
spill	spilled /spilt	spilled /spilt
rid	ridded /rid	ridded /rid

Please compare to gird: to strike, to mock BRE; girded BRE, girded BRE.

[ I:] — [ I:] — [ I:]

beat

beaten/beat^R/bet^R

7. A back diphtong can resolve into a front vowel.

[ɅI:] — [ou] — [ I:]

drive	drove/drave^A/driv^R/druv^R	driven/drove^A/ driv^R/druv^R
ride	rode/rid^R/rade^R	ridden/rid^R/rode^R
rise	rose/rise^A/riz^R	risen/riz^R
rive	rived/rove	rived/riven
shrive	shrived/shrove	shrived/shriven
smite	smote/smit	smitten/smote/smit
stride	strode	stridden
strive	strived/strove	strived/striven/strove^R/
thrive	thrived/throve	thrived/thriven
write	wrote/writ^R	written/wrote^R/writ^R

Most transcriptions consider [ɅI] a diphthong. The [I] never becomes [ I:], however. In articulation, it will become a glide, like the y in “you”.

8. Vowel quality can be back to the base form.
[o] — [u] — [o]

draw	drew/drawed^R	drawn
know	knew/knowed^R	known/knowed^R

[o] — [e] — [o]

fall

fell

fallen

[ou] — [u] — [ou]

blow: to make a current of air	blew/blowed^R	blown/blowed^R
blow (to blossom)^A	blew^A	blown/blowe^A
crow	crowed REG / crew	crowed
grow	grew/growed^R	grown/growed^R
throw	threw/throwed^R/trun^R	thrown/throwed^R

[Ʌ] — [æ] — [Ʌ]

Flourish run

ran/run^R

run

The mid to back pattern is not only regional.
[Ʌ] — [eI] — [Ʌ]

come

came/come^R/comed^R

come/comed^R

[eI] — [U] — [ eI]

take	took/taken^R	taken/took^R
shake	shook/shaked^R/shaken^R	shaken/shaked^R

[I] — [eI] — [I]

bid	bade/bid/bad^A	bidden/bid/bade
give	gave/give/giv^R/guv^R	given/giv^R/guv^R

[I:] — [o:] — [I:]

see

saw/seed^R/seen^R

seen/seed^R/saw^R

[ I:] — [o:/e:] — [I:]

was/were

been

[I:] — [eI] — [I:]

eat

ate/eat^R

eaten/eat^R

The mid-to-back pattern belongs well with the language standard.
[ɅI] — [ou] — [ou]

begin	began/begun^R	begun
drink	drank/drunk^R/drinked^R	drunk/drank^R/drinked^R/ drunken^A
ring	rang	rung
sing	sang/sung^R	sung/sang^R
sink	sank/sunk^R	sunk/sunken
shrink	shrank/shrunk^R	shrunk/shrunken
spring	sprang/sprung^R	sprung
swim	swam/swum^R	swum/swam^R

Please compare to ring: to put on or form a ring; ringed [I], ringed [I].

Please compare to spring: to supply with springs; springed [I] REG / sprung, springed [I] REG / sprung.

10. A few verbs keep a front-to-back pattern
[ I] — [æ] — [æ]

sit	sat/sot^R/sate^A	sat/sot^R/sitten^A
spit	spit/spat	spit/spat/spitted^R/spitten^A

Please compare to spit: to fix (like) with a spit, that is, a pointed rod; spitted, spitted.

[e] — [e] — [o]

swell

swelled

swelled/swollen

Let us remember about our “verb cradle” from Appendix 2. The “cradle” becomes more visible when we compare the “focused” have.
[æ] — [æ] — [æ]

have/has

had

[ou] — [e] — [Ʌ]

went/goed^R

gone/went^R

[ɅI] — [U] — [oU]

fly

flew

flown

[ U] — [I] — [Ʌ]

did/done^R/didst^A

done

We may do an exercise: we can look up the verbs that have the same first, second, and third forms, in Appendix 2. We can put them in a back-to-front order.

Exercises are better than memorizing forms. If we memorize, we can learn fast (as for tests), but our memories may not last long after the tests. To remember irregular forms long-term, we can exercise ordering them, or have a look at a few forms from time to time, leave them for a while, and be back with them later. To my experience, exercises and vowel patterns themselves appeal best to human memory.

We might avoid extra-linguistic approaches. They are called extra-linguistic, as they ascribe language features to matters and events outside language. An extralinguistic approach might tell we should do things in order to learn words, as that we should ski to learn the verb to ski. Then, our memories might get used to having words for as closely related to actions, that we begin to neglect the language form, however. Obviously, we would not be able learn a multitude of words there are, in such a way, and only some people have climbed Mount Everest.

Let us try antoher exercise.

Exercise 31. Let us think if we could “sum up” verb forms. If we look them up in a dictionary, we will find that their meanings often are not mere sums, and they can vary in regularity.

become, befall, beget, behold, beseech, beset, betake, bethink, forbear, forbid, forecast, foreknow, foresee, foretell, forget, forgive, forsake, forswear, hamstring, miscast, misdeal, misgive, mislay, mislead, misspell, misspend, mistake, misunderstand, outbid, outdo, outgo, outgrow, outride, outrun, outshine, overbear, overcast, overcome, overdo, overhang, overhear, overlay, overleap, overlie, overlook, override, overrun, oversee, overshoot, oversleep, overtake, overthrow, partake, recast, remake, repay, rerun, reset, retell, rewrite, unbend, unbind, underbid, undergo, understand, undertake, undo, waylay, withdraw, withold, withstand.

All natural languages have speech sounds and patterns of speech sounds. We can call the patterns paradigms. Some irregular verb paradigms in English have lasted longer than a thousand years. This does not mean the language has not changed, and that we do not need to learn the patterns, to know them — thinking about language form.